A History of Gas Engine Development and Technology Change, ca. 1895-1945 Illustrated by Examples from the Princeville Heritage Museum and the Wheels O' Time Museum

The gas engine, or internal combustion engine (ICE) was developed to avoid problems associated with the use of steam engines. The boiler of steam engines required a lot of wood or coal as fuel, and water to generate steam. It would take an hour or two to get a 5 to 20 hp steam engine up to operating pressure. Neglecting the water level in the boiler could result in an explosion.

It is generally considered that the ICE was invented by the Dutchman Christian Huygens in the mid 1600s. Huygens invented many other things, including the pendulum clock. However, the only explosive fuel available at the time was black (gun) powder. This would rapidly foul any cylinder (whether it be cannon, rifle, or engine), so no engines were commercially produced.

Through the work of chemists, it was found that a flammable gas could be generated when coal was heated, and that this gas could be burned. Jean Lenoir developed the first commercially produced internal combustion engine (image 1) and sold them starting in the 1860s. However, this engine was inefficient because it did not compress the gas mixture before ignition. Several hundred of these engines were made in France, and some were made in the U.S in New York City.

Further scientific work on petroleum determined that it could be fractionated into liquid fuels with different properties, including gasoline and kerosene. Kerosene was at first much cheaper than gasoline, as there was more of a demand for it in lamps. Gasoline was too explosive for much home use, although it was used in some burners and to heat clothing irons.

Nicolaus Otto was able to take advantage of these new fuels and invented the 4 cycle engine in Germany in 1876. A cycle refers to the movement of the piston in one direction. Because steam engines receive steam at each end of the cylinder, they have a "power stroke" in each direction and can be considered a 1 cycle engine. There were 2 cycle engines prior to Otto's invention, but they were not very efficient. Ironically, people trying to avoid Otto's patent came up with the modern design for the 2 cycle engine in the 1880s. Although the spoke type flywheels were present on steam engines, they were especially important in four cycle engines to carry the energy generated by combustion thought to the next combustion occurrence.

Otto's engine was produced commercially in several countries, including the U.S. Although Otto's engine was produced in the U.S under license (image 2, image 3), it was very costly, and 4 cycle engine development took off after Otto's patent expired. However, versions of the 4 cycle engine that avoided the patent were produced in the Midwestern US, including by the Charter Gas Engine Company of Sterling, IL, (image 4) and the Olds Machine company of Lansing MI. Once the major agricultural companies, such as Fairbanks Morse and International Harvester saw how well they were selling, they got into the engine manufacturing business and became the major engine manufacturers through the 1940s. However, due to shipping costs, in many cases it was more economical for engines to be locally produced and purchased. Engine manufacture in Central Illinois occurred in Havana (image 5), Lincoln, Morton (image 6) and Monmouth (image 7). Over 200 companies produced gas engines in Illinois at one time or another. Typically every town of any significant size would have a distributor for one of the major manufacturers (image 8). Even though shipment was expensive the mail order giant Sears, Roebuck & Co. sold engines under their own name that were made by other companies for many years (image 9).

These single cylinder engines were an important part of farm and manufacturing life through the 1940s until electricity come to rural areas. They were used to power a variety of different machinery, including threshers (grain separators) (image 10), water and air pumps, sprayers (image 11) grain and metal grinders, cream separators, corn shellers and choppers, hay presses, and shop machinery; plus some less common uses such as railroad track inspection cars (image 12) and freezers (image 13). In most cases the user would purchase the largest engine they might need, and then use it to run other machinery even though it may have been overpowered.

Different features of the gas engines evolved over time as new technologies were developed. The production and sale of these engines was very competitive, so manufacturers were continually trying to make them better and more economical to purchase and operate.

Fuel Supply

Fuel was delivered to the mixing chamber/engine by different means. One commonly used form was the suction tube (image 14), which went directly from the tank (located below the engine)to the mixer, usually using a tube less than 12" long. The end of the tube had a screen and check ball. The check ball prevented gas from flowing back to the engine, but would often become stuck and restrict gas flow if gas was allowed to evaporate in the tank. The second type of gas delivery was a gravity feed (image 15), where the tank was located above the engine. In this case, a float valve of some form was used to cut off the gas flow when the reservoir was full. Similar to the problem with the check ball system, if gas evaporated in the reservoir, the float could become stuck and either restrict gas flow or cause flooding. Typically a carburetor (image 16) was the reservoir, which added additional expense to the engine cost. The final common system was a fuel pump (image 17). In this case fuel was pumped to a reservoir, and when the reservoir was full it overflowed back into the gas tank. These systems were less prone to problems with the other fuel delivery systems (although some did also have check balls), but were mechanically more complicated and thus more expensive. Most engines have a mixing chamber for air and gas (image 18). Often a cover of some sort is over the air supply opening to act as a choke. The gas flow is regulated by a needle valve which is often opened wider for starting and then closed some once the engine is running.   

Ignition, spark generation

Hot tube ignition:  Hot tube ignition was one of the earliest forms used, prior to the development of reliable batteries and magnetos. It was most common in oil fields, where a constant supply of natural gas was available. A small continuous flame kept a tube mounted at the compression end of the cylinder red hot (image 19). When the gas mixture was compressed by the piston, it entered a small orifice of the tube and was ignited, thereby igniting the rest of the compressed gas mixture. They were often difficult to adjust satisfactorily.

Igniters: Igniters were used on many early engines, but became uncommon after the 1920s. A set of electrically insulated points was located in the combustion chamber (image 20). Although many variations existed, the most common involved points which were normally open. Just prior to ignition, they would close and then rapidly open. The rapid opening would generate a hot enough spark to ignite the fuel mixture (image 21). The required voltage to generate a sufficient spark was 100 to 300 volts. Sufficient voltage could be generated in a couple of different ways. A battery (image 22) and coil (image 23) could be used (a battery alone will not generate a hot enough spark). This was the more economical method, but had recurring costs to replace the battery. Magnetos could also be used, but they were relatively expensive, often adding 20 to 40% to the engine cost. Different types of magnetos were used. Rotary ones that generate AC current (image 24) have peak voltage only at two positions of the rotor; thus they must be carefully timed with the opening of the points in order to get a sufficient spark. Oscillating or "snap" magnetos (image 25) rapidly move the rotor back and forth to generate voltage, and were generally more common than the rotary magnetos.   

Spark plugs: Spark plugs (image 26) were developed in a crude form by the late 1800s, and eventually replaced other forms of ignition. A voltage of 10,000 to 20,000 volts is required for a sufficient spark. Sufficient voltage could be generated in a couple of different ways. A battery (image 22) and buzz coil (image 27) could be used. Model T-Fords and other early automobiles used buzz coils as part of their ignition system, so later single cylinder engine manufacturers took advantage of their availability and relatively low cost. In this case, when the circuit is completed, one of the points is pulled away to the electromagnet head. This induces a high voltage in the secondary coil from which a lead goes to the spark plug and negative ground (image 28). Magnetos incorporating both primary and secondary coils would also generate enough voltage for a spark plug (image 29, image 30).  

Spark retarding: Because many engines were designed to take a detachable crank to help starting, use of these cranks could become dangerous if the engine backfired or the crank did not release once the engine started. To avoid problems with backfiring, many engine electrical systems were set up so that the spark could be retarded (image 31). Normally an engine would fire just before the piston reaches top dead center and maximum compression, with the momentum of the flywheel carrying the piston through the revolution. A weak firing, due to inadequate gas amount or other reasons, could cause the engine to backfire and the flywheel to move in the opposite direction of normal. When the spark is retarded, the engine does not fire until the piston is past top dead center, so the flywheel will not go backwards. Later models of engines had non-detachable cranks built into the flywheel which would fold back in once the engine started, but injury from a backfire was still possible.

Lubrication

Oil mixed with gas:  This was a common method used for two cycle engines, although some early forms had drip oilers to lubricate the piston and other parts. Ratios of gas to oil ranged from 8:1 to 16:1.

Drip oilers: Oil cups of some form were used on steam engines. Although in that case a wick went from the metal cup oil reservoir to the bearing to provide oil. Drip oilers (image 32) typically have a glass reservoir to hold the oil, and then an opening or second smaller glass cylinder below the reservoir to view the oil drips. The oilers needed to be adjusted to the correct rate of delivery to make sure the piston was lubricated sufficiently but not waste oil and cause the engine to smoke (and thereby foul valves and cause other problems). Typical drip rates were 8 drops per minute for 1.5 hp engines and 20 drips per minute for 6 hp engines. Drip oilers were typically used only to lubricate the piston. Depending on the position relative to the piston, they may also have a check ball to prevent the oil being shot back into the reservoir when the engine was under compression (usually an additional small tube is visible inside these oilers)(image 33).

Grease cups: Grease cups were typically used on the crankshaft and connecting rod bearings. In most cases these were cups with caps that were threaded (image 34). More grease was introduced by screwing the cap in, usually something like a quarter turn for every hour of operation. In several cases automatic grease cups (image 35) were used on the connecting rod bearing. They had a spring loaded plunger, and the emitting orifice opening could be adjusted so that a constant flow of grease replaced that which was removed due to shaft rotation.

Splash lubrication: Exposed moving parts tended to get dirty and wear, so one of the first efforts by engine makers involved enclosing the piston and connecting rod. The connecting rod would dip in an oil reservoir and become lubricated, but the piston would still use a drip oiler and the crank bearings would still use grease cups. Some early engines with crankcase splash lubrication had roller bearings on the crankshaft to lessen wear (image 36). Typically some sort of crankcase ventilation was used (image 37) so that compression would not build up when the piston was moving to the rear of the cylinder. Eventually methods were developed so that all the moving parts were lubricated. These typically involved devices referred to as "dippers", "flingers" and "slingers", which dipped in a reservoir and then threw the oil onto moving parts. Some engines used the governor (see below) to do this when it was enclosed in the crankcase.  

Cooling

Air cooling: In air cooled engines, fin extensions were usually cast into the head and sides of the cylinder to help remove heat. Many engines either had a fan mounted on the side of the cylinder which was driven by the engine (image 38), or fins were built into the flywheel (image 39). However, the size of engine that could be air cooled was limited, and was typically not larger than 6 hp.  

Tank cooling: In the simplest form of water cooling, a large tank of water was attached to upper and lower parts of the engine. The same principle of "hot air rises and cool air falls" applies to water as well, so the warmer water would rise from the upper part of the engine to the upper part of the tank, then eventually cool and fall and move into the lower part of the engine as part of natural thermocline cycling (image 40). A relatively large volume of water was needed (about 5 gallons per hp) but tank cooled engines of 20 hp or more did occur. Water cooled engines had to be drained before a freeze or different parts of the engine could crack (image 41).

Evaporative cooling: When water evaporates, it cools. This method was used on some earlier engines. The water may run down screens (image 42), the outside of inverted funnels (image 43) or a series of pans. Because water was lost during evaporation, it had to be frequently replaced.

Hopper cooling: Hopper cooling was the most common form of engine cooling. In this case, the water reservoir was situated above the cylinder, but channels ran to other parts of the engine. As long as water was present and boiling, the temperature stayed at the boiling point, which was cool enough to avoid overheating the parts. Many different shapes and opening sizes of hoppers were used (image 44, image 45, image 46).   

Radiator: Later engines could have radiators, which were sometimes oil filled. Fans or pumps may be involved to cool or circulate the cooling liquid, respectively (image 47).

Governing engine speed

The engine needed to run at a sufficient, economical, and safe speed. Some uses required a relatively constant load (such as water pumping or electric generators) while others could impose varying loads which would require the engine to keep up with (threshers, shellers).

Fuel supply: Oil field engines were often governed simply by opening the gas supply more when more power was needed (image 48). In cases when the load varied, this was inefficient, but the natural gas fuel was plentiful so this was not a problem.

Pendulum: Pendulum governors existed in various forms. As the engine sped up, the pendulum would move outwards by centrifugal force and then trip a lever to vary the fuel supply or ignition (image 49, image 50)

Flyball: Flyball governors were commonly used on steam engines, and had balls connected to flat strip springs. As the governor spun, the balls would move outwards and raise a lever that would close the steam supply. Early gas engines used a similar design, but later ones had the governor designed differently (image 51) and it may or may not have adjustable coil springs to vary the tension, and thus the engine speed. In this case, as the "balls" moved outwards, frequently a collar would slide over and move a throttle rod or exhaust valve lock to control engine fuel supply or ignition, respectively.

Engine sales strategies targeted toward price and economy:   Engine manufacturers needed to sell engines to stay in business. Making a quality product helped, but painting an engine fancy might also help. Long term manufacturers went for the quality product. As there were many quality engines on the market, the next way to sell engines was to make it less expensive to buy or operate compared to that of the competitor. One way to do this was to offer it with less expensive options, such as battery vs. magneto voltage supply, as described above. In some cases, the gas supply was simplified (thereby eliminating the number of parts that needed to be made and finished) so that starting and running was effected only by varying the air supply (image 52, image 53). In other cases, manufacturing was simplified. The Fairbanks Morse Company made a "headless" engine from 1915-1918. The cylinder was cast as a unit, without any separate casting for the cylinder head, and the valves were placed on the side (image 54). Maintenance problems arose, so this engine was only made for a short time. Manufacturers also simplified flywheel manufacturing by going from a spoked (image 55) to a disk flywheel (image 56, image 57); the disk flywheels were easier to cast and required less finishing and typically had the starting crank built in.

As was previously mentioned, throttle governed engines were offered to help with fuel economy. Because kerosene was initially so much cheaper than gasoline, several manufacturers offered engines that would burn kerosene. In this case, a small reservoir to hold gasoline was placed in the front of the engine (image 58) and the main tank held kerosene. By the time the gasoline in the reservoir was used up, the engine had warmed enough to effectively vaporize kerosene, so the fuel supply was switched over.

Manufacturers also used advertising to extol the economy and value of the engines they produced (image 59, image 60, image 61).

Before their time?

Some developments that we consider "modern" were actually used by early engine manufacturers. "Hybrid" engines were manufactured in the early 1900s to serve a need in oil fields. As oil wells became less productive, it wasn't economical to keep a boiler going to power the steam engine doing the pumping. Several companies developed a conversion kit whereby the steam engine cylinder and valve chest were removed, and a natural gas burning cylinder (typically 2-cycle) replaced it (image 64).

Fuel injected engines were also developed in the early 1900s, but were less successful than the hybrid engines. Typically a long needle extended into the cylinder to "inject" the fuel (image 63). However, this method did not always work well, so many of these engines were converted to conventional (and sometimes unconventional) gas supplies (image 65).      

Gas engines on display at the Princeville Heritage Museum

Manufacturing dates range from 1908 to 1948

Associated, Chore Boy model, 1 3/4 hp

Cushman: 4 hp ("binder engine"); Bean Special Cub, 1 1/2 hp

Economy, Model E, 5 hp

Fairbanks Morse: Model Z, 1 1/2 hp ("headless"); Model Z, 3 to 5 hp ("battery equip."); Model Z, 6 hp; Model ZA, 6 hp; Model ZD, 1 1/2 hp

Fuller and Johnson, model N, 6 hp

Gray, 5 hp?

International Harvester: Famous, 6 hp; Model M, 1 1/2 hp; Model LA, 1 1/2 to 3 hp; Model LB, 3 to 5 hp. 

John Deere, Model E, 1 1/2 hp

Le Roi, 2 cylinder, ? hp

Maytag: Model 72D (twin), 1 hp; model 92, 3/4 hp 

New Idea, 1 1/2 to 3 hp

Sattley, 1 1/2 hp

Stover, Model CT, 5 hp

Gas engines on display at the Wheels O' Time Museum

Manufacturing dates range from 1870 to 1940s

Associated, Chore Boy Model, 1 1/2 hp

Briggs & Stratton, Model K, 4 hp

Bradford gas conversion of Struthers Iron Works steam engine 20 hp

Detroit Engine Works, 2 hp

Fairbanks Morse, Model Z, 1 1/2 to 3 hp ("battery equip.")

Fairmont railroad track inspection car

Hercules, Model, E 3 hp (owned by the Peoria Regional Museum Society)

Ideal Power Lawn Mower,  Model R, 1 1/2 hp

International Harvester: Model M, 1 1/2 hp; Model LA, 1 1/2 to 3 hp

Maytag: Model 72D, 1hp; Model 92, 3/4 hp

Ottowa Log Saw, 4 hp

Stover, Model 501, 3/4 hp

Shows to see gas engines on display within a 2 hr drive of the Peoria area

Lacon, IL.  Usually the second weekend of June. Sponsored by the Marshall-Putnam Antique Association.

Mapleton,  IL. Usually the last weekend of August. Sponsored by the Illinois River Valley Antique Association. www.rvaatractors.com

Mt. Pleasant IA. Usually labor day weekend. Sponsored by the Midwest Old Threshers Association. www.oldthreshers.com. many engines

New Windsor, IL. Usually the third weekend in September. Sponsored by the Edwards River Antique Engine Association. www.

Pontiac, IL. Usually labor day weekend. Sponsored by the Central States Threshermens Reunion. www.threshermensreunion.org

Princeville, IL. Usually the last Saturday of July. Sponsored by the Princeville Heritage Museum. www.princevilleheritagemuseum.org 

Sandwich, IL. Usually the last weekend in June. Sponsored by the Sandwich Early Day Engine Club. www.oldengine.org. many engines

Wyoming, IL, Usually the third weekend of August. Sponsored by the Central Illinois Heritage Tractor Club. www.citractorclub.com

More shows listed in the Farm Collector Show Directory. www.Farm.Collector.Show.Directory.com

Some books and magazines about early single cylinder engines

Books

Cummins, C. Lyle Jr. 2000. Internal Fire. 3rd Edition. Carnot Press, Wilsonville, OR. 355 pp.

Meincke, Mark.1996. The Complete Guide to Stationary Gas Engines. MBI Publishing Company, Osceola, WI. 192 pp.

Rooke, Peter. 2009. Gas Engine Restoration. Odgen Publications, Topeka, KS. 96 pp. 

Wendel, C.H. 1983, 2006. American Gasoline Engines Since 1872. The Prarie Press, Amana, IA. Volume 1, 584 pp. Volume 2, 416 pp.

Magazines

Engineers and Engines. www.eandemagazine.com

Gas Engine Mazazine.www.GasEngineMagazine.com

Farm Collector Magazine. www.FarmCollector.com

Parts and Supplies, including reprints of manuals

Hit N' Miss Enterprises

Lee W. Pederson (see ads in Gas Engine Magazine)

Starbolt

Sources of images

All images are from the collections or photographs of members of the Peoria Regional Museum Society except for the following:

Images 1 and 4: U.S. Patent Office www.uspto.gov

Image 28: Graham, F.D. 1921. Audels Engineers and Mechanics Guide 4. Theo. Audel & Co., New York.

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